xxii, 474 pages 24 cm

Published in 1980 under title: Human motivation

Includes bibliographical references (pages 437-461)

I. Mechanistic versus cognitive views. Introduction: Animate versus inanimate behavior. Human behavior versus infrahuman behavior. Thought versus action as scientific data -- Types of mechanistic and cognitive theories -- Learning and motivation -- II. Drive theory. Historical antecedents: The instinct doctrine. Original conceptions of drive. Early experimental work. -- Scientists who influenced Hull: Charles Darwin. John B. Watson. Edward L. Thorndike. Ivan P. Pavlov. Curt P. Richter. Alfred N. Whitehead and Bertrand Russell. -- The basic concepts of Hull's theory: Learning. Drive. The integration of habit and drive. The emergence of incentives -- Empirical support for drive theory: Investigations with infrahuman subjects. Investigations of human behavior. Evidence for drive as a pooled source of energy -- Theoretical extensions: Frustration. Conflict -- Associationism without a drive construct: Drive stimuli -- Some shortcomings of drive theory: Problems in predicting speed of verbal learning. Problems in the conceptual analysis of incentives. The nondirective conception of drive and some experimental confounding. Secondary drive and secondary reinforcement. Conceptualization of frustration and conflict -- General Summary -- III. Field theory. Historical evolution: Gestalt psychology. Lewin-Ach controversy -- Theoretical orientation: The use of concepts. Field theory. Appropriate areas of psychological investigation -- Formal theory: The life space. Concepts related to the person. Concepts related to the environment. Further discussion of hodological space -- Drive theory reinterpreted: Studies employing the Columbia obstruction box. The speed of consumption. The goal gradient. Secondary reinforcement -- Further extensions of the theory: Conflict. Frustration -- Experiments generated by field theory: Task recall. Task resumption. Substitution. Satiation and cosatiation -- Additional areas of investigation: Psychological ecology. Level of aspiration -- Summary -- IV. Achievement theory. Historical evolution: Henry Murray. McClelland's theory of personality and motivation -- Achievement motivation: Assessment of the need for achievement. The arousal of motivation. The arousal of achievement needs. Individual differences in motive strength -- The TAT as a measure of achievement motivation: Content validity. Criterion-related validity. Construct validity -- Atkinson's theory of achievement motivation: General laws and individual differences: Introduction to the theory. Hope of success. Fear of failure. Resultant achievement motivation. Further elaboration of the model. Combining the motives -- Derivations from the theory and supporting evidence: Free-choice behavior. Forced-choice behavior (risk preference). Level of aspiration. Persistence of behavior in progress -- Educational implications of the theory: Vocational aspiration. Programmed instruction. Intelligence and motivation. Grade point average. Ability grouping. Major field of concentration -- Success and failure and problems for the achievement model: The motivation effects of failure. The motivational effects of success. Summary of motivational effects -- A modification of the achievement model: Inertial motivation. Problem one: explaining failure effects when Maf> Ms. Problem two: disentangling stimulus from inertial effects. Further examination of the persistence of behavior. Summary. The reduction of inertial motivation -- Another look at educational practices: Programmed learning. Grades. Item-difficulty sequence. Long-term gials -- Conflict -- Frustration -- Comparison with Hullian and Lewinian theory -- Achievement motivation in society: Training in achievement motivation -- General Summary -- V. Cognitive approaches and attribution theory. Historical background of the cognitive approach -- Psychoanalytic theory and cognitive controls: Psychoanalytic models of thought and action. Cognitive style -- Cognitive determinants of emotion: Cognition, arousal, and emotion. The informational value of arousal -- Cognitive appraisal and coping behavior -- Theories of cognitive consistency: Cognitive balance. Cognitive dissonance -- Research in cognitive dissonance: Forced compliance and insufficient justification. Post-decisional dissonance. Motivational research. Resistance to extinction. General summary -- Attribution theory: General theoretical orientation of attribution theory. Fritz Heider -- Internal and external attributions: Attribution and emotional expression. Attribution and cognitive dissonance. Attribution in animal experimentation -- Individual differences in causal beliefs: Social learning theory. Skill versus chance, reinforcement schedules, and resistance to extinction. Individual differences in locus of control -- Other work in causal attribution based on individual differences: Origin-pawn as a causal determinant. Intellectual achievement responsibility -- An attributional model of action -- Summary -- VI. Achievement motivation and attribution theory: The perceived causes of success and failure: A classification scheme of the causal determinants. Antecedent conditions. Empirical investigations of cue utilization in achievement contexts -- Achievement needs and causal ascription -- Causal atrribution and affective expression: Inferred empirical evidence. Direct empirical evidence. Achievement needs, causal inferences, and affect. General summary -- Causal attribution and expectancy change: Empirical evidence. General summary -- Atkinson's theory of achievement motivation: Free choice. Persistence of behavior. Intensity of performance. Risk preference (forced choice). Summary of behavioral consequences of causal ascription and the attributional analysis of achievement needs -- Locus of control reevaluated -- Experimental extinction: Experimental studies. Achievement dispositions and reinforcement schedules: a comparison -- Morality: Piaget's analysis of moral judgment. Morality and achievement motivation. Societal development: an attributional comparison of Piaget and Karl Marx -- Educational implications: Ascriptions to ability or to effort. Motivated attributional errors. Attributional conflict. Teaching programs. Surveillance, trust, and grades. Achievement training programs -- Summary -- VII. Review and reinterpretation: the cognitive argument. Deprivation and tissue injury states: The mechanistic analysis. The cognitive analysis of drive states -- Learned Drives: The mechanistic analysis of fear. The cognitive conception of fear and emotion -- Individual differences in emotional reactivity: The mechanistic analysis of verbal learning. The cognitive analysis of verbal learning -- Resistance to extinction: The mechanistic analysis of extinction. The cognitive analysis of extinction -- Issues for a cognitive psychology of motivation: Science versus ethnoscience. Levels of consciousness and a new methodology. The body-mind problem. A cognitive psychology of infrahumans. Quantitative exactness

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